Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution and COVID-19 Mortality: an ecological analysis in England

There is an urgent need to examine what individual and environmental risk factors are associated with COVID-19 mortality. This objective of this study is to investigate the association between long term exposure to air pollution and COVID-19 mortality. We conducted a nationwide, ecological study using zero-inflated negative binomial models to estimate the association between long term (2014-2018) small area level exposure to NO_x, PM_2.5, PM₁₀ and SO₂ and COVID-19 mortality rates in England adjusting for socioeconomic factors and infection exposure. We found that all four pollutant concentrations were positively associated with COVID-19 mortality. The increase in mortality risk ratio per inter quarter range increase was for PM_2.5:11%, 95%CIs 6%-17%), PM₁₀ (5%; 95%CIs 1%-11%), NOx (11%, 95%CIs 6%-15%) and SO₂ (7%, 95%CIs 3%-11%) were respectively in adjusted models. Public health intervention may need to protect people who are in highly polluted areas from COVID-19 infections.