Psychological Distress Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Adults in the United Kingdom: Coordinated Analyses of 11 Longitudinal Studies

  1. Kishan Patel
  2. Elaine Robertson
  3. Alex S. F. Kwong
  4. Gareth J Griffith
  5. Kathryn Willan
  6. Michael J Green
  7. Giorgio Di Gessa
  8. Charlotte F. Huggins
  9. Eoin McElroy
  10. Ellen J. Thompson
  11. Jane Maddock
  12. Claire L Niedzwiedz
  13. Morag Henderson
  14. Marcus Richards
  15. Andrew Steptoe
  16. George B. Ploubidis
  17. Bettina Moltrecht
  18. Charlotte Booth
  19. Emla Fitzsimons
  20. Richard Silverwood
  21. Praveetha Patalay
  22. David Porteous
  23. Srinivasa Vittal Katikireddi
1 evaluations Published on
Read the full article Related papers
This article on Sciety

Abstract

Importance

How population mental health has evolved across the COVID-19 pandemic under varied lockdown measures is poorly understood, with impacts on health inequalities unclear.

Objective

We investigated changes in mental health and sociodemographic inequalities from before and across the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in 11 longitudinal studies.

Design, Setting and Participants

Data from 11 UK longitudinal population-based studies with pre-pandemic measures of psychological distress were jointly analysed and estimates pooled. Multi-level regression was used to examine changes in psychological distress from pre-pandemic to during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Exposures

Trends in the prevalence of poor mental health were assessed pre-pandemic (TP0) and at three pandemic time periods: initial lockdown (TP1, Mar-June 20); easing of restrictions (TP2, July-Oct 20); and a subsequent lockdown (TP3, Nov 20-Mar 21). We stratified analyses by sex, ethnicity, education, age, and UK country.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Psychological distress was assessed using the General Health Questionnaire 12 (GHQ-12), Kessler-6, 9-item Malaise Inventory, Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ), Patient Health Questionnaire-8 and 9 (PHQ-8/9), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) and Centre for Epidemiological Studies – Depression (CES-D), across different studies.

Results

In total, 49,993 adult participants (61.2% female; 8.7% Non-White) were analysed. Across the 11 studies, mental health deteriorated from pre-pandemic scores across all three pandemic time periods, but with considerable heterogeneity across the study-specific effect sizes estimated (pooled estimate TP1 Standardised Mean Difference (SMD): 0.15 (95% CI: 0.06, 0.25); TP2 SMD: 0.18 (0.09, 0.27); TP3 SMD: 0.21 (0.10, 0.32)). Changes in psychological distress across the pandemic were higher in females (TP3 SMD: 0.23 (0.11, 0.35)) than males (TP3 SMD: 0.16 (0.06, 0.26)), and lower in below-degree level educated persons at TP3 (SMD: 0.18 (0.06, 0.30)) compared to those who held degrees (SMD: 0.26 (0.14, 0.38)). Increased psychological distress was most prominent amongst adults aged 25-34 and 35-44 years compared to other age groups. We did not find evidence of changes in distress differing by ethnicity or UK country.

Conclusions and Relevance

The substantial deterioration in mental health seen in the UK during the first lockdown did not reverse when lockdown lifted, and a sustained worsening was observed across the pandemic. Mental health declines have been unequal across the population, with females, those with higher degrees, and those aged 25-44 years more affected.

Related articles

Related articles are currently not available for this article.