Quantitative Multi-pathway Assessment of Exposure to Fecal Contamination for Infants in Rural Ethiopia

In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), enteric infections pose a significant threat to children’s health. However, understanding the specifics of when, where, and how young children in LMICs are exposed to enteric pathogens and the roles of animal reservoirs, environmental media, and human hosts play during exposure remains limited. This study systematically evaluates infants’ exposure toE. colithrough various pathways in the rural Haramaya woreda of Ethiopia. Between June 2021 and June 2022, we conducted over 1300 hours of structured behavioral observations on 79 infants when aged 4–8 months (Timepoint 1) and 11–15 months (Timepoint 2). Enumerators recorded the infant’s behavior related to exposure, including when and where it occurred, using the Countee © application. Concurrently, we collected 1338 environmental samples from key contact interfaces between infants, other people, and the environment to test forE. coli. We used a competing hazard model for duration-based behaviors, an inhomogeneous Poisson point process model for frequency-based behaviors, and a left-censored lognormal distribution model forE. colicontamination levels. The behavioral and environmental information was then integrated into an agent-based exposure model framework to quantify the exposure toE. colithrough different pathways.

The infant behavior, which altered the relative importance of different exposure pathways, changed as children grew older. Notably, we observed increased rates of touching behavior (e.g., touching fomites) and soil-pica, increased consumption of solid food, and more time spent on the bare ground at Timepoint 2. The major sources of exposure toE. coliwere food and breastfeeding at Timepoint 1 and food and soil at Timepoint 2. This study provides insights for interventions to minimize infants’ risk of exposure to fecal contamination and subsequent risk of enteric infections, including improved food handling practices, enhanced personal hygiene for breastfeeding caregivers, and education on the risk of soil-pica.