Self-Organizing Neural Networks in Novel Moving Bodies: Anatomical, Behavioral, and Transcriptional Characterization of a Living Construct with a Nervous System

A great deal is known about the formation and architecture of biological neural networks in animal models, which have arrived at their current structure-function relationship through evolution by natural selection. Little is known about the development of such structure-function relationships in a scenario where neurons are allowed to grow within evolutionarily-novel, motile bodies. Previous work showed that when a piece of ectodermal tissue is excised fromXenopusembryos and allowed to developex vivo, it will develop into a three-dimensional (3D) mucociliary organoid, and exhibits behaviors different from those observed in tadpoles of the same age. These ‘biological robots’ or ‘biobots’ are autonomous, self-powered, and able to move through aqueous environments. Here we report a novel type of biobot that is composed of ciliated epidermis and additionally incorporates neural tissue (neurobots). We show that neural precursor cells implanted within theXenopusskin constructs develop into mature neurons and extend processes towards the outer surface of the bot as well as among each other. These self-organized neurobots show distinct external morphology, generate more complex patterns of spontaneous movements, and are differentially affected by neuroactive drugs compared to their non-neuronal counterparts. Calcium imaging experiments show that neurons within neurobots are indeed active. Transcriptomics analysis of the neurobots reveals increased variability of transcript profiles, expression of a plethora of genes relating to nervous system development and function, a shift toward more ancient genes, and up-regulation of neuronal genes implicated in visual perception.