Effects of Air Pollution on Birds: an Overview of the Consequences and Mitigation Strategies (Review)

An increasing environmental concern, air pollution has a significant impact on biodiversity, including bird species. Because of their high metabolic rates, high levels of mobility, and direct exposure to the atmosphere, birds are especially susceptible to air pollutants. The current understanding of the effects of different air pollutants, including particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and ozone, on bird physiology, behaviour, reproduction, and survival is compiled in this review. The indirect impacts of pollution on avian food sources, habitat quality, and migration patterns are also covered. The review concludes by underscoring the necessity of more research on how birds react to complex pollutant mixtures and integrated conservation strategies.