Environmental drivers of tick density in UK dairy farms: implications for livestock health and agri-environment policy

Background Ticks are important vectors of livestock and human pathogens in Europe. Environmental policies promoting woodland creation and habitat restoration are increasing habitat suitability for Ixodes ricinus but impacts on livestock tick-borne disease risk remain unclear. This study examined how landscape features influence tick distribution on UK dairy farms with a recent history of tick-borne disease. Methods Questing ticks were sampled on 72 pastures in 12 dairy farms in southwest England (2,376 transects), stratified by distance from pasture boundaries and adjacency to woodland or non-woodland habitats. Environmental variables were measured at transect, boundary, and pasture scales. Generalised linear mixed models identified predictors of tick presence in pastures, and nymph density at pasture boundaries. Farm-level associations between tick abundance, woodland cover, and cattle pathogen prevalence were assessed descriptively. Results A total of 1,701 ticks were collected (91.3% nymphs). Ticks were detected on 20% of transects and in 89% of pastures, with densities strongly aggregated at pasture boundaries. The proportion of woodland cover within 50m buffers was the dominant environmental driver at both boundary and pasture scales, with greater cover associated with higher nymph densities and increased probability of tick presence. Boundaries adjacent to water also supported significantly higher nymph densities. Conclusions Local landscape features, particularly woodland cover and small water bodies at boundaries, strongly influence tick distribution in UK dairy pastures. Woodland expansion through environmental schemes may thus be expected to increase tick distribution and densities in farmed landscapes, with implications for livestock exposure and public health.